Overview
Methods and solutions to protect the environment against PFAS, in line with new regulations by US and EU authorities PFAS in the Environment comprehensively summarizes the chemical and ecotoxicological properties of different types of per- and polyfluorinated alkanes (PFAS) as well as current and emerging detection methods, known and suspected health risks, and removal technologies from water and soil. This book considers the recently enacted and much stricter regulations set by the US EPA and its European counterpart on the production and use of PFAS. A special focus is placed on how water treatment plants may be upgraded to reduce PFAS content in drinking water. In PFAS in the Environment, readers will find information on: Occurrence, distribution, fate/transport, and behavior of PFAS Climate change threats posed by PFAS Case studies detailing cutting-edge research and remediation of PFAS Global regulations of PFAS Strategies to phase out PFAS from industrial and consumer products and ultimately achieve a PFAS-free environment PFAS in the Environment serves as an excellent up-to-date resource on the subject for environmental scientists and professionals as well as government agencies and researchers in environmental and human toxicology.
Full Product Details
Author: Rao Y. Surampalli (Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability (GIEES), USA) , Tian C. Zhang (University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA) , Bashir M. Al-Hashimi (King's College, UK) , Chih-Ming Kao (National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan)
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons Inc
Imprint: John Wiley & Sons Inc
ISBN: 9781394343904
ISBN 10: 1394343906
Pages: 528
Publication Date: 13 November 2025
Audience:
Professional and scholarly
,
Professional & Vocational
Format: Hardback
Publisher's Status: Forthcoming
Availability: Awaiting stock 
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xvii Editor Biographies xxi Preface xxvii 1 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: Overview 1 Divyanshu Sikarwar, Ritu Kshatriya, Neha Sharma, Sovik Das, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Puspendu Bhunia, Bashir M. Al- Hashimi, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and C.M. Kao 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Classification of PFAS 2 1.3 Production and Application of PFAS 3 1.4 Occurrence, Distribution, and Behavior of the PFAS in the Environment 4 1.5 Impacts of PFAS on the Environment and Living Beings 6 1.6 Action to Research, Restrict, and Remediate PFAS 7 1.6.1 Policies and Regulatory Measures 7 1.6.2 Substitution Plan 8 1.6.3 Treatment and Remediation Technologies 9 1.6.4 Research Limitations of PFAS in the Environment 9 1.7 Book Structure and Outline of Each Chapter 10 References 11 2 Properties, Uses, Sources, and Environmental Releases of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 17 Anil Dhanda, Shraddha Yadav, and M. M. Ghangrekar 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Properties of PFAS 18 2.2.1 Physical Properties 18 2.2.2 Chemical Properties 19 2.2.3 Thermal Stability 19 2.3 Major Characteristics Affecting PFAS Fate and Transport in the Environment 20 2.4 Impacts of Peculiar Features of PFAS 20 2.5 History and Use of PFAS 21 2.5.1 Aerospace Sector 21 2.5.2 Biotechnology 22 2.5.3 Construction and Infrastructure 22 2.5.4 Chemical Processing 22 2.5.5 Metal Finishing and Treatment 22 2.5.6 Electronics Industry 22 2.5.7 Energy Technologies 22 2.5.8 Food and Beverage Processing 23 2.5.9 Mining Operations 23 2.5.10 Oil and Gas Industry 23 2.5.11 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing 23 2.5.12 Rubber and Plastics Processing 23 2.5.13 Semiconductor Manufacturing 23 2.5.14 Textile and Leather Industries 23 2.5.15 Medical and Diagnostic Devices 24 2.5.16 Metals and Ceramics 24 2.5.17 Musical Instruments 24 2.5.18 Optical Devices 24 2.5.19 Packaging and Paper 24 2.5.20 Cosmetics and Personal Care 24 2.5.21 Pesticides and Agriculture 24 2.5.22 Pharmaceutical Ingredients 24 2.5.23 Environmental Remediation 25 2.5.24 Sports and Recreation 25 2.5.25 Cabling and Wiring 25 2.6 Sources and Environmental Releases of PFAS 25 2.6.1 Major Sources for Environmental Releases of PFAS 25 2.6.1.1 Industrial Facilities 25 2.6.1.2 Consumer and Domestic Products 26 2.6.1.3 Landfills and Wastewater Treatment Plants 26 2.6.1.4 Legacy Contamination and Global Usage Patterns 26 2.6.1.5 Atmospheric Emissions and Long- Range Transport 26 2.6.2 Ranking Exposure Pathways from Various Sources 27 2.6.2.1 Drinking Water Contamination (High Risk) 27 2.6.2.2 Food Chain Contamination (High Risk) 27 2.6.2.3 Indoor Air and Dust (Moderate- to- High Risk) 27 2.6.2.4 Occupational Exposure (Moderate Risk) 28 2.6.2.5 Recreational Water Exposure (Moderate Risk) 28 2.6.2.6 Soil Ingestion and Contact (Low- to- Moderate Risk) 28 2.7 Future Perspective 28 2.8 Conclusion 28 References 29 3 Current and Emerging Detection/Monitoring Techniques for Perand Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Quantification in Environmental Samples 35 Jiun- Hau Ou, Hua- Bin Zhong, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al- Hashimi 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Sample Extraction Methods 35 3.3 Conventional Techniques for Detection of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 37 3.3.1 Liquid Chromatography 38 3.3.2 Gas Chromatography 39 3.3.3 Ion Chromatography 39 3.4 Emerging Techniques for Detection of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 40 3.4.1 Colorimetric 40 3.4.2 Electrochemical and Sensor Based 41 3.4.3 Fluorescence- Based 42 3.5 Indirect Quantification Techniques 43 3.5.1 Fluoride Ion Generation 43 3.5.2 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 44 3.5.3 Total Fluorine Organic Compounds 45 3.6 Regulatory Determinations of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Comparison of Different Techniques 46 3.6.1 Regulatory Determinations of PFAS 46 3.6.2 Techniques for Detecting PFAS in Different Media and Sensitivity Comparison 48 3.7 Monitoring Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment 49 3.7.1 Environmental Occurrence and Global Trends 49 3.7.2 Matrix- Specific Monitoring Challenges 51 3.7.3 Integration of Emerging Technologies 53 3.7.4 Data Gaps and Harmonization Needs 54 3.7.5 Future Outlook 56 3.8 Challenges with the Detection and Monitoring of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 56 3.8.1 Limitations of Detection Technologies 57 3.8.2 Inconsistent Monitoring Standards 58 3.8.3 Uncertainty in Environmental Migration and Transformation 60 3.8.4 Insufficient Databases and Monitoring Networks 61 3.9 Future Perspective 63 3.9.1 Are Current Analytical Chemistry Techniques Adequate? 63 3.9.2 What Improvements Are Needed to Improve Process and Precision 63 3.9.3 How to Better Characterize the Range of PFAS Potentially in the Environment? 64 3.10 Conclusion 65 References 65 4 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Different Matrices: Occurrence, Distribution, Fate/Transport, and Behavior 79 Hua- Bin Zhong, Jiun- Hau Ou, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al- Hashimi 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Fate/Transport and Transformation Processes 80 4.2.1 Partitioning 80 4.2.2 Transport 81 4.2.2.1 Advection/Dispersion/Diffusion 81 4.2.2.2 Deposition 82 4.2.2.3 Leaching 83 4.2.3 Surfactant Properties and Micelle Formation 84 4.2.4 Transformation of PFAS 85 4.2.4.1 Abiotic 85 4.2.4.2 Biotic 86 4.3 PFAS in Different Matrices of the Natural Environment 87 4.3.1 Aqueous Matrices 88 4.3.2 Solid Matrices 89 4.3.3 Air 89 4.3.4 Living Beings 90 4.3.5 Food Matrices 91 4.3.6 Other Media and Compartments 92 4.3.7 Complex Transitions of PFAS among Different Media 92 4.4 PFAS in the Built Environment for Pollution Control 93 4.4.1 Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants 93 4.4.2 Combined Stormwater and Sewer Overflows 94 4.4.3 Sewage Sludge, Biosolids, and Landfill Leachate 95 4.4.4 Solid Waste Management Systems 96 4.4.5 Remediation Sites 97 4.5 Future Perspective 98 4.6 Conclusion 99 References 100 5 PFAS in Drinking Water Sources: Global Presence, Impacts, Removal, and Regulation 105 Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Presence of PFAS in Drinking Water Sources across the Globe 106 5.2.1 Europe 106 5.2.2 America 112 5.2.3 Asia 115 5.2.4 Africa 118 5.2.5 Australia 118 5.3 Human Exposure to PFAS through Drinking Water and Its Impacts 118 5.3.1 Immunotoxicity 119 5.3.2 Carcinogenicity 120 5.3.3 Endocrine Disruption and Kidney Disorders 121 5.3.4 Fetal Growth 122 5.3.5 Enhanced Cholesterol Levels 122 5.3.6 Hormonal Imbalance 122 5.3.7 Sexual Development 123 5.3.8 Liver Function Disorder 123 5.4 Removal of PFAS from Different Drinking Water Sources 124 5.4.1 Adsorption 124 5.4.2 Membrane Technology 126 5.4.3 Anion Exchange 127 5.5 Regulations Imposed by Different Countries for the Ramifications of PFAS 128 5.6 Future Perspectives 130 5.7 Conclusion 131 References 131 6 Occurrence, Transformation, and Removal of PFAS in Wastewater Treatment Plants 145 Srishti Mishra, Rishabh Raj, Brajesh K. Dubey, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar 6.1 Introduction 145 6.2 Occurrence of PFAS in Water Matrices 146 6.3 Distribution of PFAS in WWTPs Across the Globe 149 6.4 Removal of PFAS via Conventional Methods 150 6.5 Removal of PFAS from Biosolids 152 6.6 Emerging Techniques for PFAS Removal and Future Perspectives 153 6.7 Conclusion 154 References 155 7 A Cyclic Problem of Disposal of Products and Materials Containing Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 161 Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 7.1 Introduction 161 7.2 Potential Sources Contributing to PFAS in the Environment 163 7.3 Life Cycle of PFAS in the Environment 165 7.4 Three Major PFAS Disposal Methods: Consequences and Impact 169 7.4.1 PFAS in Leachate and Surrounding Areas of Landfill 169 7.4.2 PFAS in Effluent and Surrounding Areas of WWTPs 172 7.4.3 PFAS after Incineration 175 7.5 Risks to the Communities Dwelling Near Landfills and PFAS- Polluted Water Sources 178 7.6 Future Perspective 180 7.7 Conclusion 180 References 181 8 Ecological Toxicity of PFAS 187 Wei- Ting Chen, Chathura Dhanasinghe, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 8.1 Introduction 187 8.2 Linking PFAS Substances or Subclasses with PFAS Adverse Effects to Aquatic and Terrestrial Organisms 188 8.3 Exposure Potential for Different Classes of Organisms 190 8.3.1 Aquatic Organisms 190 8.3.2 Terrestrial Organisms 191 8.3.3 Human Exposure 192 8.4 Assessing the Ecological Effects of PFAS: Framework and Approaches 193 8.4.1 Traditional Toxicity Tests 194 8.4.2 QSAR Modeling Approaches 194 8.4.3 Read- across Methods 195 8.4.4 Microarray 195 8.4.5 Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) 196 8.5 Conclusion 196 References 197 9 Toxicity and Health Risks of PFAS 209 Chathura Dhanasinghe, Wei- Zhe Lin, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 9.1 Introduction 209 9.2 Classification of PFAS 211 9.2.1 Legacy 212 9.2.2 Emerging 213 9.3 Important Pathways of Environmental Exposures 213 9.3.1 The Primary Pathway 214 9.3.2 The Use of PFAS- contaminated Consumer Products 215 9.3.3 The Use of Pesticides in both Agriculture and Residential Applications 216 9.3.4 Other Pathways 217 9.4 PFAS Toxicity in Humans 217 9.4.1 Exposure Sources and Routes of PFAS in Humans 218 9.4.2 Accumulation of PFAS in Humans 219 9.4.3 Identification of PFAS in Human 220 9.4.4 Health Impacts of PFAS on Living Beings 222 9.5 PFAS Toxicity in Experimental Models 224 9.5.1 Hepatic and Lipid Metabolic Toxicity 225 9.5.2 Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity 226 9.5.3 Immune Suppression 227 9.5.4 Tumor Induction 228 9.5.5 Endocrine Disruption 229 9.5.6 Neurotoxicity 231 9.5.7 Obesity 232 9.6 PFAS Toxicokinetics and Dynamic Processes in Humans 232 9.6.1 Species and Sex Differences 232 9.6.2 Effects of Comorbidity on PFAS Toxicokinetics 233 9.6.3 Toxicokinetics and Dynamic Processes in Humans 234 9.6.4 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic/Toxicokinetic (PBPK/PBTK) Modeling in Different- Aged Populations 235 9.7 PFAS Risk Communication 236 9.7.1 Role of Risk Perception 236 9.7.2 Risk Communication Planning and Engagement Tools 237 9.8 Future Perspective 239 9.9 Conclusion 240 References 241 10 PFAS Associated with Microplastics (MPs): A New Concern of a Forever Alliance 265 Almeenu Rasheed, Nehaun Zargar, Neha Sharma, and Sovik Das 10.1 Introduction 265 10.2 Fate of MPs and PFAS in the Aquatic Environment 266 10.3 MPs as PFAS Carriers in the Aquatic Environment 267 10.4 The Interaction of MPs and PFAS through Different Mechanisms 268 10.5 Factors Influencing the Interaction of MPs and PFAS 269 10.6 Harmful Impact of Combined Exposure of MPs and PFAS Present in Aquatic Environment and Living Organisms 270 10.7 Future Perspective 271 10.8 Conclusion 271 References 272 11 Climate Change Threats Imposed by PFAS 275 Chathura Dhanasinghe, Wei- Ting Chen, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 11.1 Introduction 275 11.2 Role of PFAS in Disrupting Ocean Carbon Sequestration 279 11.3 The Harmful Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on Zooplankton 283 11.3.1 Bioaccumulation 284 11.3.2 Impact on Growth 285 11.3.3 Impact on Reproduction 285 11.3.4 ROS Production and Oxidative Stress 286 11.3.5 PFAS and Hormonal Disruption 286 11.4 The Detrimental Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on the Marine Biological Pump and Microbial Pump 287 11.4.1 Marine Biological Pump 287 11.4.2 The Detrimental Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on the Marine Biological Pump 289 11.4.3 Marine Microbial Carbon Pump 290 11.4.4 The Detrimental Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on the Marine Microbial Carbon Pump 292 11.5 Strategies of Management and Control 293 11.5.1 Policy and Governance Approaches 294 11.5.2 Technological and Engineering Solutions 297 11.6 Future Perspective 300 11.7 Conclusion 301 References 302 12 Conventional Technologies for Removal of PFAS from Water Matrices 315 Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 12.1 Introduction 315 12.2 Occurrence of PFAS in Water Matrices and Potential Impacts on the Environment and Living Beings 316 12.2.1 Occurrence of PFAS in Surface Water 316 12.2.2 Occurrence of PFAS in Groundwater 317 12.2.3 Occurrence of PFAS in Drinking Water 318 12.2.4 Effect of PFAS on Living Beings 319 12.3 Conventional Treatment Technologies for Removing PFAS from Water Matrices 320 12.3.1 Physical Technologies 320 12.3.2 Chemical Technologies 329 12.3.3 Biological Methods 334 12.4 Life Cycle Assessment and Techno- Economic Analysis of Conventional Technologies for PFAS Removal 336 12.4.1 Life Cycle Assessment 336 12.4.2 Techno- Economic Analysis 337 12.5 Future Perspectives 338 12.6 Conclusion 339 References 339 13 Advanced/Emerging Technologies for Removal of PFAS from Water Matrices 349 Koran Barman, Yasser Bashir, Neha Sharma, Nehaun Zargar, Ritu Kshatriya, and Sovik Das 13.1 Introduction 349 13.2 Emerging/Advanced Technologies for PFAS Removal 352 13.2.1 Photolysis or Photocatalytic Oxidation 352 13.2.2 Constructed Wetlands 356 13.2.3 Electrochemical 357 13.2.4 Bioelectrochemical 359 13.2.5 Plasma 360 13.2.6 Electron Beam 362 13.2.7 Sub and Super Water Oxidation 363 13.2.8 Sonochemical or Sonolysis 363 13.2.9 Foam Fractionation 364 13.3 Treatment Train for the Removal of PFAS and their Comparison 366 13.4 Life Cycle Assessment and Techno- economic Analysis of Advanced and Emerging Technologies for PFAS Removal 367 13.5 Future Perspective 368 13.6 Conclusion 368 References 369 14 Treatment Technologies for Removal of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from Soil and Biosolids 377 Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 14.1 Introduction 377 14.2 Fate of PFAS into Soil and Biosolids and Potential Impacts on the Environment and Living Beings 378 14.3 Treatment Technologies for PFAS Removal from Soil and Biosolids 382 14.3.1 Adsorption 387 14.3.2 Membrane 387 14.3.3 Stabilization 388 14.3.4 Incineration 389 14.3.5 Thermal Hydrolysis 389 14.3.6 Chemical Oxidation 390 14.3.7 Supercritical Water Oxidation 391 14.3.8 Plasma 392 14.3.9 Sonochemical 393 14.3.10 Ball Milling 394 14.3.11 Soil Washing 394 14.3.12 Soil Liquefractionation 395 14.3.13 Bioremediation and Phytoremediation 396 14.4 Future Perspective 397 14.5 Conclusion 398 References 398 15 Status of Regulation on the Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Across the Globe 405 Manikanta M. Doki, Lakshmi Pathi Thulluru, Akash Tripathi, Shamik Chowdhury, and M. M. Ghangrekar 15.1 Introduction 405 15.2 PFAS Regulation and Guidelines by Different Countries 406 15.2.1 United States Environmental Protection Agency 406 15.2.2 European Union Guidelines on PFAS 407 15.2.3 United Kingdom Regulations on PFAS 407 15.2.4 Canadian PFAS Regulation 408 15.2.5 National Environmental Management of PFAS in Australia 408 15.2.6 Strategies or Policies for the Regulation of PFAS Usage in India 409 15.2.7 PFAS Regulation in Japan 409 15.2.8 Regulation in Other Countries 410 15.2.8.1 Norway 410 15.2.8.2 Middle East 410 15.2.8.3 Thailand 410 15.2.8.4 Vietnam 410 15.3 Global Organizations in PFAS Regulation 411 15.3.1 UN Recommendation in the Stockholm Convention 411 15.3.2 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 412 15.3.3 United Nations Environment Programme 412 15.3.4 International Pollutants Elimination Network 413 15.4 Differences in Available Regulations, Advisories, and Guidelines 413 15.5 Factors Contributing to Different Regulation Limits of PFAS 413 15.6 Challenges in the Implementation of PFAS Regulations 414 15.7 Future Perspective 414 15.8 Conclusion 415 References 415 16 Replacement of Legacy Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: A Way Forward to Mitigate the Ill Impacts Associated with These Chemicals 421 Randeep Singh, Anindita Ganguly, Young- Ho Ahn, and Saikat Sinha Ray 16.1 Introduction 421 16.2 Phasing Out of Legacy PFAS 424 16.3 Physicochemical Properties of Legacy PFAS 425 16.4 Impacts of Legacy PFAS on the Environment 429 16.5 Substitution of Longer- Chain PFAS with Shorter- and Ultra- Shorter- Chain Pfas 437 16.6 Conclusions 440 References 440 17 Transition Toward the Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance-Free Environment: Is it Possible? 447 Chinmoy Kanti Deb, Randeep Singh, Young- Ho Ahn, and Saikat Sinha Ray 17.1 Introduction 447 17.2 Stakeholders and Communities’ Concerns 449 17.2.1 Understanding Stakeholder Perspectives and Varying Levels of Awareness and Priorities Regarding PFAS Contamination 449 17.2.2 Health and Environmental Impacts of PFAS 450 17.2.3 Social and Economic Challenges Associated with PFAS 451 17.2.4 Role of Public Awareness and Advocacy 452 17.3 Transition to a PFAS Free Economy and the Role of the Universal PFAS Restriction 452 17.3.1 The Current Reliance on PFAS in Industries 452 17.3.2 Challenges in Replacing PFAS with Essential Applications 453 17.3.3 Development of PFAS- free Alternatives 454 17.3.4 Global Efforts and Universal Restrictions on PFAS 454 17.3.4.1 Universal Restrictions on PFAS by the European Union 456 17.3.4.2 North American Regulations 457 17.3.4.3 PFAS Regulations in Asia, the Pacific Region, and Other Countries 457 17.3.4.4 International Treaties for PFAS Monitoring and Regulation 457 17.3.4.5 Progress in Global Efforts and International Treaties for PFAS Regulation 458 17.3.5 Policy Roadmap and Implementation Strategies for Enforcing Universal PFAS Restriction 459 17.3.5.1 Role of Governments and Global Multinational Organizations 459 17.3.5.2 Role of Research and Development Community 459 17.3.5.3 Role of Product Manufacturers 459 17.3.5.4 Role of Product Consumers 460 17.3.6 Economic and Social Implications of Transition from PFAS 460 17.3.7 How can Lifestyle Changes Reduce the Dependence on PFAS and its Burdens? 461 17.4 Challenges Linked with Transition Toward a PFAS- Free Environment 461 17.4.1 Detection and Monitoring 461 17.4.2 Cost and Uncertainty of Green Elimination of “Forever Chemicals” 462 17.4.3 Awareness, Education, and Community Involvement 462 17.5 Future Perspectives 463 17.6 Conclusion 464 References 464 18 Research, Regulation, and Remediation of the Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: Case Studies 475 Azhan Ahmad and Swatantra P. Singh 18.1 Introduction 475 18.2 Key Actions by USEPA to Address PFAS 476 18.2.1 The PFAS Strategic Roadmap 476 18.2.2 Setting Drinking Water Standards 477 18.2.3 Requiring Industry Accountability 478 18.2.4 Classifying PFAS as Hazardous Substances 478 18.2.5 Regulating PFAS Discharges into Waterways 478 18.2.6 Expanding Monitoring and Research 479 18.2.7 Focusing on Environmental Justice 479 18.3 PFAS and Its Hidden Impact on Agriculture 480 18.4 PFAS in Drinking Water— Minnesota Case Study 481 18.5 Prenatal Exposure to PFAS and Birth Outcomes: A Grave Concern 483 18.6 The True Cost of PFAS and Benefits of Acting Now 483 18.7 Future Perspective 485 18.8 Conclusion 486 References 486 Index 491
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Author Information
Rao Y. Surampalli is Distinguished Visiting Professor in several universities, and President and Chief Executive Officer of the Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability (GIEES) in Lenexa, USA. Tian C. Zhang is Professor in the department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), USA. Sir Bashir M. Al-Hashimi is ARM Professor and Vice-President for Research and Innovation at King’s College London, UK. Chih-Ming Kao is Distinguished Professor in the Institute of Environmental Engineering at the National Sun Yat-sen University in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Makarand M. Ghangrekar is Institute Chair Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India. Puspendu Bhunia is Professor at the School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, India. Sovik Das is Assistant Professor at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India.
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