Overview

Mustard gas is typically associated with the horrors of World War I battlefields and trenches, where chemical weapons were responsible for tens of thousands of deaths. Few realize, however, that mustard gas had a resurgence during the Second World War, when its uses and effects were widespread and insidious.  Toxic Exposures tells the shocking story of how the United States and its allies intentionally subjected thousands of their own servicemen to poison gas as part of their preparation for chemical warfare. In addition, it reveals the racialized dimension of these mustard gas experiments, as scientists tested whether the effects of toxic exposure might vary between Asian, Hispanic, black, and white Americans. Drawing from once-classified American and Canadian government records, military reports, scientists’ papers, and veterans’ testimony, historian Susan L. Smith explores not only the human cost of this research, but also the environmental degradation caused by ocean dumping of unwanted mustard gas. As she assesses the poisonous legacy of these chemical warfare experiments, Smith also considers their surprising impact on the origins of chemotherapy as cancer treatment and the development of veterans’ rights movements. Toxic Exposures thus traces the scars left when the interests of national security and scientific curiosity battled with medical ethics and human rights.  

Full Product Details

Author:   Susan L. Smith
Publisher:   Rutgers University Press
Imprint:   Rutgers University Press
Edition:   New in Paperback
Dimensions:   Width: 15.20cm , Height: 1.10cm , Length: 22.90cm
Weight:   0.003kg
ISBN:  

9780813586106

ISBN 10:   0813586100
Pages:   209
Publication Date:   19 April 2019
Recommended Age:   From 17 to 99 years
Audience:   Professional and scholarly ,  College/higher education ,  Professional & Vocational ,  Tertiary & Higher Education
Format:   Paperback
Publisher's Status:   Active
Availability:   In Print  
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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments  List of Abbreviations  Introduction: Health and War Beyond the Battlefield  Part I: Preparation for Chemical Warfare  1. Wounding Men to Learn: Soldiers as Human Subjects  2. Race Studies and the Science of War  Part II: Toxic Legacies of War  3. Mustard Gas in the Sea Around Us  4. A Wartime Story: Mustard Agents and Cancer Chemotherapy  Conclusion: Veterans Making History  NotesIndex 

Reviews

Should appeal to readers who wish to gain insights into this murky world of chemical warfare. --Chemistry World [A] rich monograph [and] strong addition to the literature of chemical warfare. --Social History of Medicine An excellent book that will appeal to those interested in medical history and military history. --Journal of Military History Slim in size, but big in scope. --Canadian Journal of History Toxic Exposures is compelling and persuasive about the untoward outcomes of military testing. Smith's work is sound and comprehensive, and her scholarship is impeccable. --Susan E. Lederer University of Wisconsin-Madison This well-researched, thought-provoking, and timely study of mustard gas experiments during World War II and after is a welcome addition to the growing scholarly literature on chemical warfare and the health consequences of war. It is of benefit not only to historians of science and medicine, the military, and the environment but to a much wider readership of all who are concerned about the use and morality of chemical weapons. --Isis Smith's closing observation bears repeating: 'Surely, the history of the mustard gas experiments during World War II provides a powerful lesson in why such medical experimentation necessitates public scrutiny and public debate.' Toxic Exposures is a welcome reminder of that lesson. --Michigan War Studies Toxic Exposures provides a timely and well-researched contribution, adding additional documentation and context to this fascinating and troubling story. --American Historical Review A cautionary tale that should be widely read and discussed. --Alberta Views Canada supplied much of the mustard gas used in the U.S.-led test program as well as 1,000 bombs, DND records show. Canadian chemical warfare specialists from Suffield, Alta., helped design some of the tests and Canadian pilots took part in the bombing raids. Susan L. Smith, a University of Alberta historian, said Canada was a significant participant in the chemical weapons testing on San Jose Island. This was an area where Canada indeed punched above its own weight, said Smith, author of a new book called Toxic Exposures, which chronicles mustard-gas use during the Second World War. During her research, Smith found that scientists conducted racebased chemical warfare experiments on San Jose Island. Scientists monitored how mustard gas affected the skin of Puerto Ricans and Caucasians, during the tests. Other tests in the U.S. focused on blacks and Japanese. Smith noted that all individuals, no matter what their ethnicity, suffered extensively from the mustard-gas exposure. At one point, the U.S. considered using mustard gas as a method to kill Japanese troops hiding in bunkers and other fortresses on Pacific islands. Tests on San Jose Island were key in those preparations but the Americans decided not to proceed with using the weapons. It will take between six and eight weeks to dispose of the eight weapons, Panamanian officials have said. Canada has a moral commitment to help clean up the mess it created, Smith added.--David Pugliese National Post Many remember chemical warfare as something that disappeared along with WWI gas masks, but Smith recovers a more recent history of weaponized poisons developed during WWII. Supported by stunningly thorough research, Toxic Exposures will leave you gasping for air. --Paul A. Lombardo author of Three Generations, No Imbeciles [Toxic Exposures] is certainly a detailed, thorough examination of mustard gas, but it is also a tool for examining the long-term societal, environmental, and personal effects of war. There is a 'toxic legacy' to war, and Smith's book expertly addresses this issue... Recommended. All readers. --Choice Stunningly thorough scholarship ... In 1997, the Chemical Weapons Convention came into force; it is currently signed by 192 countries. Yet it has already been violated many times. Warfare continues, as does military research on chemicals and drugs that could become agents of biowarfare. It is difficult to disagree with the plea that ends Toxic Exposures public oversight and public debate on this process are needed now more than ever. --Nature

An excellent book that will appeal to those interested in medical history and military history. --Journal of Military History Should appeal to readers who wish to gain insights into this murky world of chemical warfare. --Chemistry World [A] rich monograph [and] strong addition to the literature of chemical warfare. --Social History of Medicine Slim in size, but big in scope. --Canadian Journal of History From Chemical Weapon to Chemotherapy, 1917-1946, by Carolyn Wilke--The Scientist Smith's closing observation bears repeating: 'Surely, the history of the mustard gas experiments during World War II provides a powerful lesson in why such medical experimentation necessitates public scrutiny and public debate.' Toxic Exposures is a welcome reminder of that lesson. --Michigan War Studies A cautionary tale that should be widely read and discussed. --Alberta Views Toxic Exposures is compelling and persuasive about the untoward outcomes of military testing. Smith's work is sound and comprehensive, and her scholarship is impeccable. --Susan E. Lederer University of Wisconsin-Madison Many remember chemical warfare as something that disappeared along with WWI gas masks, but Smith recovers a more recent history of weaponized poisons developed during WWII. Supported by stunningly thorough research, Toxic Exposures will leave you gasping for air. --Paul A. Lombardo author of Three Generations, No Imbeciles [Toxic Exposures] is certainly a detailed, thorough examination of mustard gas, but it is also a tool for examining the long-term societal, environmental, and personal effects of war. There is a 'toxic legacy' to war, and Smith's book expertly addresses this issue... Recommended. All readers. --Choice Stunningly thorough scholarship ... In 1997, the Chemical Weapons Convention came into force; it is currently signed by 192 countries. Yet it has already been violated many times. Warfare continues, as does military research on chemicals and drugs that could become agents of biowarfare. It is difficult to disagree with the plea that ends Toxic Exposures public oversight and public debate on this process are needed now more than ever. --Nature This well-researched, thought-provoking, and timely study of mustard gas experiments during World War II and after is a welcome addition to the growing scholarly literature on chemical warfare and the health consequences of war. It is of benefit not only to historians of science and medicine, the military, and the environment but to a much wider readership of all who are concerned about the use and morality of chemical weapons. --Isis Toxic Exposures provides a timely and well-researched contribution, adding additional documentation and context to this fascinating and troubling story. --American Historical Review Canada supplied much of the mustard gas used in the U.S.-led test program as well as 1,000 bombs, DND records show. Canadian chemical warfare specialists from Suffield, Alta., helped design some of the tests and Canadian pilots took part in the bombing raids. Susan L. Smith, a University of Alberta historian, said Canada was a significant participant in the chemical weapons testing on San Jose Island. This was an area where Canada indeed punched above its own weight, said Smith, author of a new book called Toxic Exposures, which chronicles mustard-gas use during the Second World War. During her research, Smith found that scientists conducted racebased chemical warfare experiments on San Jose Island. Scientists monitored how mustard gas affected the skin of Puerto Ricans and Caucasians, during the tests. Other tests in the U.S. focused on blacks and Japanese. Smith noted that all individuals, no matter what their ethnicity, suffered extensively from the mustard-gas exposure. At one point, the U.S. considered using mustard gas as a method to kill Japanese troops hiding in bunkers and other fortresses on Pacific islands. Tests on San Jose Island were key in those preparations but the Americans decided not to proceed with using the weapons. It will take between six and eight weeks to dispose of the eight weapons, Panamanian officials have said. Canada has a moral commitment to help clean up the mess it created, Smith added.--David Pugliese National Post

[A] rich monograph [and] strong addition to the literature of chemical warfare. --Social History of Medicine Should appeal to readers who wish to gain insights into this murky world of chemical warfare. --Chemistry World An excellent book that will appeal to those interested in medical history and military history. --Journal of Military History Slim in size, but big in scope. --Canadian Journal of History This well-researched, thought-provoking, and timely study of mustard gas experiments during World War II and after is a welcome addition to the growing scholarly literature on chemical warfare and the health consequences of war. It is of benefit not only to historians of science and medicine, the military, and the environment but to a much wider readership of all who are concerned about the use and morality of chemical weapons. --Isis Smith's closing observation bears repeating: 'Surely, the history of the mustard gas experiments during World War II provides a powerful lesson in why such medical experimentation necessitates public scrutiny and public debate.' Toxic Exposures is a welcome reminder of that lesson. --Michigan War Studies Toxic Exposures provides a timely and well-researched contribution, adding additional documentation and context to this fascinating and troubling story. --American Historical Review Toxic Exposures is compelling and persuasive about the untoward outcomes of military testing. Smith's work is sound and comprehensive, and her scholarship is impeccable. --Susan E. Lederer University of Wisconsin-Madison Many remember chemical warfare as something that disappeared along with WWI gas masks, but Smith recovers a more recent history of weaponized poisons developed during WWII. Supported by stunningly thorough research, Toxic Exposures will leave you gasping for air. --Paul A. Lombardo author of Three Generations, No Imbeciles [Toxic Exposures] is certainly a detailed, thorough examination of mustard gas, but it is also a tool for examining the long-term societal, environmental, and personal effects of war. There is a 'toxic legacy' to war, and Smith's book expertly addresses this issue... Recommended. All readers. --Choice A cautionary tale that should be widely read and discussed. --Alberta Views Canada supplied much of the mustard gas used in the U.S.-led test program as well as 1,000 bombs, DND records show. Canadian chemical warfare specialists from Suffield, Alta., helped design some of the tests and Canadian pilots took part in the bombing raids. Susan L. Smith, a University of Alberta historian, said Canada was a significant participant in the chemical weapons testing on San Jose Island. This was an area where Canada indeed punched above its own weight, said Smith, author of a new book called Toxic Exposures, which chronicles mustard-gas use during the Second World War. During her research, Smith found that scientists conducted racebased chemical warfare experiments on San Jose Island. Scientists monitored how mustard gas affected the skin of Puerto Ricans and Caucasians, during the tests. Other tests in the U.S. focused on blacks and Japanese. Smith noted that all individuals, no matter what their ethnicity, suffered extensively from the mustard-gas exposure. At one point, the U.S. considered using mustard gas as a method to kill Japanese troops hiding in bunkers and other fortresses on Pacific islands. Tests on San Jose Island were key in those preparations but the Americans decided not to proceed with using the weapons. It will take between six and eight weeks to dispose of the eight weapons, Panamanian officials have said. Canada has a moral commitment to help clean up the mess it created, Smith added.--David Pugliese National Post Stunningly thorough scholarship ... In 1997, the Chemical Weapons Convention came into force; it is currently signed by 192 countries. Yet it has already been violated many times. Warfare continues, as does military research on chemicals and drugs that could become agents of biowarfare. It is difficult to disagree with the plea that ends Toxic Exposures public oversight and public debate on this process are needed now more than ever. --Nature

Should appeal to readers who wish to gain insights into this murky world of chemical warfare. --Chemistry World [A] rich monograph [and] strong addition to the literature of chemical warfare. --Social History of Medicine An excellent book that will appeal to those interested in medical history and military history. --Journal of Military History Slim in size, but big in scope. --Canadian Journal of History From Chemical Weapon to Chemotherapy, 1917-1946, by Carolyn Wilke--The Scientist This well-researched, thought-provoking, and timely study of mustard gas experiments during World War II and after is a welcome addition to the growing scholarly literature on chemical warfare and the health consequences of war. It is of benefit not only to historians of science and medicine, the military, and the environment but to a much wider readership of all who are concerned about the use and morality of chemical weapons. --Isis Smith's closing observation bears repeating: 'Surely, the history of the mustard gas experiments during World War II provides a powerful lesson in why such medical experimentation necessitates public scrutiny and public debate.' Toxic Exposures is a welcome reminder of that lesson. --Michigan War Studies Toxic Exposures provides a timely and well-researched contribution, adding additional documentation and context to this fascinating and troubling story. --American Historical Review A cautionary tale that should be widely read and discussed. --Alberta Views Canada supplied much of the mustard gas used in the U.S.-led test program as well as 1,000 bombs, DND records show. Canadian chemical warfare specialists from Suffield, Alta., helped design some of the tests and Canadian pilots took part in the bombing raids. Susan L. Smith, a University of Alberta historian, said Canada was a significant participant in the chemical weapons testing on San Jose Island. This was an area where Canada indeed punched above its own weight, said Smith, author of a new book called Toxic Exposures, which chronicles mustard-gas use during the Second World War. During her research, Smith found that scientists conducted racebased chemical warfare experiments on San Jose Island. Scientists monitored how mustard gas affected the skin of Puerto Ricans and Caucasians, during the tests. Other tests in the U.S. focused on blacks and Japanese. Smith noted that all individuals, no matter what their ethnicity, suffered extensively from the mustard-gas exposure. At one point, the U.S. considered using mustard gas as a method to kill Japanese troops hiding in bunkers and other fortresses on Pacific islands. Tests on San Jose Island were key in those preparations but the Americans decided not to proceed with using the weapons. It will take between six and eight weeks to dispose of the eight weapons, Panamanian officials have said. Canada has a moral commitment to help clean up the mess it created, Smith added.--David Pugliese National Post Toxic Exposures is compelling and persuasive about the untoward outcomes of military testing. Smith's work is sound and comprehensive, and her scholarship is impeccable. --Susan E. Lederer University of Wisconsin-Madison Many remember chemical warfare as something that disappeared along with WWI gas masks, but Smith recovers a more recent history of weaponized poisons developed during WWII. Supported by stunningly thorough research, Toxic Exposures will leave you gasping for air. --Paul A. Lombardo author of Three Generations, No Imbeciles [Toxic Exposures] is certainly a detailed, thorough examination of mustard gas, but it is also a tool for examining the long-term societal, environmental, and personal effects of war. There is a 'toxic legacy' to war, and Smith's book expertly addresses this issue... Recommended. All readers. --Choice Stunningly thorough scholarship ... In 1997, the Chemical Weapons Convention came into force; it is currently signed by 192 countries. Yet it has already been violated many times. Warfare continues, as does military research on chemicals and drugs that could become agents of biowarfare. It is difficult to disagree with the plea that ends Toxic Exposures public oversight and public debate on this process are needed now more than ever. --Nature

Should appeal to readers who wish to gain insights into this murky world of chemical warfare. --Chemistry World An excellent book that will appeal to those interested in medical history and military history. --Journal of Military History [A] rich monograph [and] strong addition to the literature of chemical warfare. --Social History of Medicine Slim in size, but big in scope. --Canadian Journal of History This well-researched, thought-provoking, and timely study of mustard gas experiments during World War II and after is a welcome addition to the growing scholarly literature on chemical warfare and the health consequences of war. It is of benefit not only to historians of science and medicine, the military, and the environment but to a much wider readership of all who are concerned about the use and morality of chemical weapons. --Isis Smith's closing observation bears repeating: 'Surely, the history of the mustard gas experiments during World War II provides a powerful lesson in why such medical experimentation necessitates public scrutiny and public debate.' Toxic Exposures is a welcome reminder of that lesson. --Michigan War Studies Canada supplied much of the mustard gas used in the U.S.-led test program as well as 1,000 bombs, DND records show. Canadian chemical warfare specialists from Suffield, Alta., helped design some of the tests and Canadian pilots took part in the bombing raids. Susan L. Smith, a University of Alberta historian, said Canada was a significant participant in the chemical weapons testing on San Jose Island. This was an area where Canada indeed punched above its own weight, said Smith, author of a new book called Toxic Exposures, which chronicles mustard-gas use during the Second World War. During her research, Smith found that scientists conducted racebased chemical warfare experiments on San Jose Island. Scientists monitored how mustard gas affected the skin of Puerto Ricans and Caucasians, during the tests. Other tests in the U.S. focused on blacks and Japanese. Smith noted that all individuals, no matter what their ethnicity, suffered extensively from the mustard-gas exposure. At one point, the U.S. considered using mustard gas as a method to kill Japanese troops hiding in bunkers and other fortresses on Pacific islands. Tests on San Jose Island were key in those preparations but the Americans decided not to proceed with using the weapons. It will take between six and eight weeks to dispose of the eight weapons, Panamanian officials have said. Canada has a moral commitment to help clean up the mess it created, Smith added.--David Pugliese National Post Toxic Exposures is compelling and persuasive about the untoward outcomes of military testing. Smith's work is sound and comprehensive, and her scholarship is impeccable. --Susan E. Lederer University of Wisconsin-Madison Many remember chemical warfare as something that disappeared along with WWI gas masks, but Smith recovers a more recent history of weaponized poisons developed during WWII. Supported by stunningly thorough research, Toxic Exposures will leave you gasping for air. --Paul A. Lombardo author of Three Generations, No Imbeciles [Toxic Exposures] is certainly a detailed, thorough examination of mustard gas, but it is also a tool for examining the long-term societal, environmental, and personal effects of war. There is a 'toxic legacy' to war, and Smith's book expertly addresses this issue... Recommended. All readers. --Choice Stunningly thorough scholarship ... In 1997, the Chemical Weapons Convention came into force; it is currently signed by 192 countries. Yet it has already been violated many times. Warfare continues, as does military research on chemicals and drugs that could become agents of biowarfare. It is difficult to disagree with the plea that ends Toxic Exposures public oversight and public debate on this process are needed now more than ever. --Nature Toxic Exposures provides a timely and well-researched contribution, adding additional documentation and context to this fascinating and troubling story. --American Historical Review A cautionary tale that should be widely read and discussed. --Alberta Views

Author Information

SUSAN L. SMITH is a professor of history at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada.  She is the author of Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women’s Health Activism in America, 1890–1950 and Japanese American Midwives: Culture, Community, and Health Politics, 1880–1950. 

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